Teaching Vocabulary

Learning a new language is learning about language elements (such as vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation) and skills (such as speaking, listening, reading and writing). Discussing about language elements, vocabulary is probably as one of the central problems, yet it is a fundamental requirement to mastery a language or minimally builds a communication at least. Moreover, vocabulary is a component of language that maintains all of information about meaning and using word in language.

Vocabulary building is really important in any language learning especially for the second language learners. This opinion is supported by Schmitt: “One of the keys in learning a foreign language is mastery the second language’s vocabulary“.[1] Several of people regard that vocabulary is another name of word. Nevertheless, there is a big diversity of word and vocabulary. It’s true that vocabulary is the word itself but in terms of their meanings, both have a number of distinctions. The following are main word categories and their classification that may be worth considering in finding the right materials in teaching vocabulary and examining the list of vocabulary for the first word counts.[2]

The word vocabulary entered the English lexicon in the 1530s derived from the Latin word ‘vocabularium,’ meaning ‘a list of words.’ It gained its modern meaning, the total of all words known by a person, in the 1700s. If the term is used to mean a list of words, there are several types of vocabulary. These can be divided, as with grammatical classes, into adjectives, nouns and verbs. They could also be assorted, as with the different fields of semantics, into categories as diverse as emotions, colors, animals and human body parts.[3]

Barnhart points out two definitions of vocabulary. Firstly, stock of words used by person, class of people, profession, etc. Second, vocabulary is a collection or list of words, ordinarily in alphabetical order and defined.[4] In addition, there are several definitions which linguists have constructed related to the sense of vocabulary. As follow:

a)      Vocabulary is total number of words which (with rules for combining them) make up a language.[5]

b)      Vocabulary is the word having meaning when heard or seen even though not produced by the individual himself to communicate with other.[6]

c)      Vocabulary can be defined, roughly, as the words we teach in the foreign language.[7]

d)     Any collection of signs or symbols constituting a means or system of nonverbal communication: vocabulary of a computer.[8]

Based on the several theories of linguists about vocabulary, research defines that vocabulary is one of necessary elements in language organized as a collection of words in list arranged by alphabetical that refers to something or someone and have a meaning.

2). Types of vocabulary

Vocabulary, in fact, has a great number of ways to be recognized or memorized by learners. For the aim of teaching and learning activities, there are two varieties of vocabulary: The active vocabulary (productive) and the passive vocabulary (receptive) vocabulary. The active vocabulary refers to the words which can be called in the long-term memory and use appropriately in writing and speech and the passive vocabulary refers to the words or lexical items which can only be recognized and comprehended in the context of reading and listening materials.[9]

Schail declares three types of vocabulary that every person has.[10] They are active vocabulary, reserve vocabulary and passive vocabulary:

a)      Active Vocabulary

Active vocabulary is the words that we use in speaking and writing probably runs 5.000 up to 10.000 words. Ingo Plag initiates that the active vocabulary obviously consists of words that have been known better than those that constitute passive vocabulary.[11] The same distinction holds for native speakers, who also actively use only a subset of the words they are familiar with. Another instance of graded knowledge of words is the fact that, even as native speakers, they frequently only know what have been heard or read certain word before, but do not know the meaning.

Corson (1995) states that an active vocabulary covers all those words people need to use and have no reservations about using to communicate with others on an everyday basis. Furthermore, the rate of people's active vocabulary is a unique reflection of their sociocultural position and the range of unconnected practices engaged in. On the other words, it depends on people who frequently make contact with the specialist meaning systems of professions or of other special knowledge categories as a part of everyday existence, over a lifetime. Then, Corson (1983) calls the active vocabulary as a “motivated” vocabulary. It consists of all the words we need to use and feel no reluctance in using in our everyday life. Moreover Crothers & Suppes (1967) asserts that learning a word for productive use requires more learning than for receptive use.[12] 

b)      Reserve Vocabulary

This type is the words been cognizant but rarely used in ordinary speech. We utilize them in a writing skill when we have time to consider, or search for a synonym.

c)      Passive Vocabulary

The words that are recognized vaguely, but people oftentimes do not have assurance of the meaning and just know that those have been seen before. A learner's passive vocabulary is the words that they understand but don't use yet. This can be compared with active vocabularies, which are words that learners understand and use in speaking or writing. The active and passive vocabulary of a learner changes constantly. They start using words, try new meanings, forget words, abandon words that have no use, revise words, etc.[13] Corson (1983) defines that a passive vocabulary includes the active of vocabulary and it also includes the learners’ ‘unmotivated’ vocabulary.[14] The unmotivated vocabulary can be assorted into two types. The first type is the words which are only partly understood and are not well known enough to use actively. Another one is the words which aren’t needed in daily communication.

Nation (2001) states that passive vocabulary knowledge is involved perceiving the form of a word while listening or reading and retrieving its meaning. Productive vocabulary knowledge, on the other hand, means to express a meaning through speaking or writing and recall and produce the appropriate spoken or written word form.[15] Corson rolls out that it includes the words stored in verbal memory that people partially understand, nevertheless not well enough for active use. These are words that people meet less often and they may be low frequency words in the language as a whole.[16]

3). Teaching vocabulary

In a teaching process, teacher transforms his knowledge to the learners until they can receive and absorb the material as well as possible. It is supported by Gagne’s (1974): “Instruction or teaching is a set of events which effect learners in such a way that learning is facilitated”.[17] Moreover, Kasbolah (1998) construes that teaching is showing or helping someone to learn how to do something, providing with knowledge causing to know or understand.[18] Thus, teaching vocabulary is the teacher’s effort to provide students vocabulary material, to ensure their understanding, and to improve their knowledge of vocabulary in use in the context of teaching and learning behavior between learners and environmental which includes teacher, teaching aids, and so forth in order to achieve the determined goal.

Moras (2001) utters that there are several aspects of lexis that need to be taken into account when teaching vocabulary. For instance, Moras (2001) gives the list of several aspects of lexis when teaching vocabulary based on the work of Gairns and Redman (1986): 

(a)    Boundaries between conceptual meanings: knowing not only what the words refer to, but also where the boundaries are that separate it from words of related meaning (e.g. cup, mug, and bowl).

(b)   Polysemy: distinguishing between the various meaning of a single word form with several and closely related meanings (head: of a person, of a pin, of an organisation).

(c)     Homonymy: distinguishing between the various meaning of a single word form which has several meanings which are not closely related (e.g. a file: used to put papers in or a tool).

(d)   Homophony: understanding words that have the same pronunciation but different spellings and meanings (e.g. flour, flower).

(e)    Synonymy: distinguishing between the different shades of meaning that synonymous words have (e.g. extend, increase, expand)

(f)    Affective meaning: distinguishing between the attitudinal and emotional factors (denotation and connotation), which depend on the speakers attitude or the situation and socio-cultural associations of lexical items.

(g)   Style, register, dialect: Being able to distinguish between different levels of formality, the effect of different contexts and topics, as well as differences in geographical variation.

(h)   Translation: awareness of certain differences and similarities between the native and the foreign language (e.g. false cognates).

(i)     Chunks of language: multi-word verbs, idioms, strong and weak collocations, lexical phrases.

(j)     Grammar of vocabulary: learning the rules that enable students to build up different forms of the word or even different words from that word (e.g. sleep, slept, sleeping; able, unable; disability).

(k)    Pronunciation: ability to recognise and reproduce items in speech. [19] 

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[1] Norbert Schmitt. Vocabulary in Language Teaching. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000) p.19

[2] Bambang Setiyadi. TEFL 2 First Edition. (Jakarta: Universitas Terbuka, 2007). p. 24

[3] wiseGEEK. http://www.wisegeek.com/what-are-the-different-types-of-vocabulary.htm, retrieved on 8th of October 2012 at 05.22 a.m.

[4] Cynthia A. Barnhart. The Facts on File Student’s Dictionary of American English. (USA: Facts on File, Inc., 2008) p. 697

[5] AS Hornby. Oxford Advance Learner’s Dictionary of Current English (twenty-fifth impression). (London: Oxford University Press printed in Great Britain by Hazzel Watson & Viney Limited, 1987). p. 959

[6] L. R. Goode. Dictionary of Education. (New York: Mebrown Tall Book Co., 1959). p. 642

[7] Ur Penny. A Course in Language Teaching: Practice and Theory. (United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 1991)

[8] Dictionary.com. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/vocabulary , retrieved on 6th of October 2012 at 05.36 p.m.

[9] G. Ellish and B. Sinclair. Learning to Learn English A Course in Language Training (sixth printing). (United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 1997) p.28

[10] Schail. Seven Days Faster Reading. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967). p. 57

[11]Ingo Plag. Word-Formation in English. (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2003). p.46

[12] I.S.P Nation. Teaching & Learning Vocabulary. (Massachusetts, USA: McNaughton & Gunn, 1990). p. 94

[13] Teaching English. http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/knowledge-database/passive-vocabulary , retrieved on 11^th of October 2012 at 06.17 am.

[14] Nation., p. 6

[15] Zhong Zhiying. A Comparative Study of Passive and Active Vocabulary Knowledge of Prince of Songkla University and South China Agricultural University EFL Learners. (Bangkok: Songkla University, 2005) p. 122 (based on thesis online

http://human.pn.psu.ac.th/ojs/index.php/eJHUSO/article/viewFile/21/31 , retrieved on 11^th of October 2012 at 06.44 p.m.).

[16] David Corson. Using English Words. (Norwell, Massachusetts: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1995). p.46

[17] Kasiani Kasbolah. A Study the Technique Used in Introducing New Vocabulary for Beginner Level of Planet Kids English Course. (Malang: Department of English Education, 1998) p. 9

[18] Id. at 9

[19]Solange Moras. Teaching Vocabulary to Advanced Students: A Lexical Approach.

 http://www3.telus.net/linguisticsissues/teachingvocabulary.html, retrieved on 30^th of October 2012 at 09.33 a.m.

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English Tenses

In English there are theree basic tenses : Present, past and future. each has progresive form indicating on goin action: an each has a perfect progresive form, indicating on going action that will be complited at form definite  time. Tenses is use  to show the relation between the action and state thescribed by the verb and time, which is replected in the  form of the verb.

Tenses is “form taken by verb to indicate the time (also the continuence or complitnees) of the action atc. (Present tense in perfect tense).”[1] Also “The tense of a verb indicate the time of its  action”.[2] Tenses is “(grammar) any of t he forms of a verb that may be used to indicate the time of the action or state expressed by the verb: the present/past/future tense.”[3]

      Tenses very different languages, tenses many indicate whether an action, actiity or state is past, present and future tense may indicate whether and action, activity or state is, was, or will be complete or whether it is, or will be in progress over periode of time.

“Tenses are:

1)      (a peron) cervous or worried, and unable to relax;

2)      (a situation), an event, a period of time, ect) in which people have strong feeling such as worry; anger;ect that often cannot be expressed apenly;

3)      (a muscle or othe part of the body tight rather then relaxed;

4)      (wire, etc) stretched tightly.”[4]

The other side, Prof G.S., Muhambadithaya in dublin says that:    

“The verb in a sentence expresses an action, even or state with relationship to time. It tell us whether an action event took place something a go (past). Whether it take place now (present or whether we take place sometimes from now (future). The verb shows time by change its form.  This form are called tenses.”[5]

Allend says that

“English has theree times devittion past, present and future, expressed by the simple tenses. They should this shown as forming three mind blooks of tenses, each being sub devided so as express other aspect whithin its  general time[6] 

  

      Based describe above, shortly about tenses have been drawn at tables of following:

Simple Present The world is round I study every day

Simple Past I studied Last Night

Simple Future I will study tomorrow

Figure I [7]

a.      Tenses Form

There are three tenses form is often used to speak with the other people in dily activity such as :

1)      Simple present tense

a)      Simple present, function.

       Simple present tense say that something was true in the past, is  true in the present, and will be true in the future. It is used for general statement of fact.[8]

Example :

(1)   Water cosist of hidrogen and Oxigen.

(2)   Most animals kill only for good.

(3)   The  world  is around.

The main use of the simple present tense is to express the habitual action :

Example :

(1)   He smoks

(2)   Dogs bark

(3)   Cats drink milk

This tense does not tell us whether or not the action is being perormed at the moment of speaking, and if we want to make this clear we must add a verb in the present continuous tense :

Exmple :

(1)   He’s working. He always at night.

(2)   My dog barks a lot. But he isn’t barking at the moment

b)     Spelling notes.

Verb ending in ss, sh, ch, x, and es, insted of s a lone, to form of the verb  with third person singular :

Example :

(1)   I kiss, he kisses.

(2)   I rush, he rushes.

(3)   I watch, he watches.

(4)   I box, he boes.

(5)   I do, she does

(6)   I go, he goes.

       When y follows the consonant we change the y into i and add ess.

Example :

(1)   I carry, he carries.

(2)   I coppy, he copies.

(3)   I try, he tries.

       But verb ending in y  following a vowel obey the usual rule.[9]

Example :

(1)   I obey, he obeys.

(2)   I say, he says

c)      Simple present, form.

Simple present form.

Statement	{I-you-We-They} work.{He-She-It} work.
Negative:	{I-You-We-They} do not work. {He-She-It} does not work.
Question:	Do {I-We-You-They}  work? Does {He-She-It} work?

Figure 2

Contractions of pronouns with be: I’m, you’re, we’re, they’re, he’s, she’s, it’s.

Contraction of verbs with not: don’t, doesn’t, aren’t, isn,t (Note: am and not are not contracted).[10]

d)     The simple present tense use frequency adverbs.

      In the simple present tense there are seven numbers of frequency adverbs, they are : always, usually, often, sometimes, seldom, rarely, never.

The frequency adverbs of simple present

Always        usually        often        sometime        seldom        rarely      never  100%      99%-90%   90%-75%    75%-25%      25%-10%    10%-1%      0%
Subject + frequency + Simple present V	Always, usually, often, sometime, seldom, rarely and never are called “frequency adverbs”. They come between the subject and the simple present verb. always usually often    S     +    sometimes   +   V a seldom rarely never
a) Bob       Always      come too late b) Mary     Usually      come late c) We         Often         watch TV at night d) I         sometime  drink tea with dinner e) They    seldom       go to the movies f) Maryam  rarely        make a mistake g) They      never        eat paper

Figure 3

“Some frequency adverb can also come at the beginning at the end of a sentence.”[11]

Example :

(1)   Sometime I get up at seven.

(2)   I sometimes get up at seven.

(3)   I get up sometime at seven.

2)      Simple Past Tense

a)      Simple past, function.

The simple past tense is used to talk about a completed action in a time before now. Duration is no important. The time of the action can be in the recent past or the distant past.

Example :

(1)   John Cabot Sailed to America in 1498.

(2)   My father died last year.

We always use the simple past when you say when something happened, so it is associated with certain past time expression.

Example :

(1)   Frequency  :

Often, sometime, always.

(2)   A definite point in time :

last week, when I was a child, yesterday, six weeks ago.

(3)   An indifinitive point in time :

      the other day, ages ago, a long time ago etc.

Note :  The word ago  is a useful way of expressing the distance into the past. It is placed after the period of time e.g. a week ago, three years ago, a minute ago

Example :

(1)   We saw a good film last night..

(2)   I went to the theatre last night.

(3)   She played the piano when she was a child.

(4)   He sent me a letter six months ago.

(5)   Peter left five minutes ago

The simple past tense is also used for a past habit.[12]

Example :

(1)   He always carried an umbrella.

(2)   They never drank wine.

b)     Simple past, form

This tenses have two forms it is called irregular verb and regular verb.

(1)   Irregular verb, form

Simple past be, have, do :

Irregular verb, form

Subject	Verb
	Be	Have	Do
I	was	had	Did
You	were	had	Id
He, She, It	was	had	Did
We	were	had	Did
You	were	had	Did
They	were	had	Did

Figure 4

     In the simple past tense is like as with the other tenses that have three types sentence, it is called affirmative, negative and interrogative sentence.

     Affirmative.

1) I was in Japan last year.

2) She had a headche yesterday.

3) We did our homework last night.

Negative and Introgative.

Note: for the negative and interrogative simple past form of “do” as an ordinary verb, use the auxiliary “do”, e.g. We did not our homework last night. The negative of “have” in the simple past is usualy formed using the auxiliary “do”, but sometime by simply adding not or the contraction “n’t”. The interrogative form of “have” in the simple past normally uses the auxiliary “do”

(2)   Spelling notes of irregular verb.

- If the verb ends –e, just add –d

Smile – smilled

Hope – hoped

- If the verb ends in two consonants, just add -ed

Help – helped

Learn – learned

- If the verb ends in two vowels + a consonant, just add –ed.

Rain – rained

Heat – heated

- If the verb has one syllable and ends in one vowel + one  consonant, double the consonant to make the –ed form.

Stop – stopped

Plan – planned

- If the first syllable in two sylllable verb is stressed, do not double the consonant.

Visit – visited

Offer – offered

- If the second syllable of a two  syllable verb is stressed,double the consonant.

Prefer – preferred

Admit – admitted

- If the verb end in a vowel + -y, keep the –y. Do not change it to –i.

Play – played

Enjoy – enjoyed

- If the verb ends in a consonant + -y, cahange the –y to –i to make the –ed form.

Worry – worried    Study – studied

- If the verb ends –ie just add -ed

Die – died      Tie – tied

- Expectation: do not double w or x.

Snow – snowed  Fix – fixed.[13]

c)      Regular verb, form.

Example :

(1)   They weren’t in Rio last summer.

(2)   We hadn’t any money.

(3)   We didn’t have time to visit the Eiffel tower.

(4)   Were they in Icleand last January ?

(5)   Did you have a bicycle a when you were.

Regular verb,form.

Affirmative
Subject I	Verb + ed
Negative
Subject They	Did not Did not	Infinitive without to      Visit.....?
Interrogative
Did Did	Subject She	Infinitive without to      Arrive......?
Interrogative negative
Did not Didn’t	Subject You	Infinitive without to Like.........?

Figure 5

                   

   Example: to walk, simple past.

Note : For the negative and interrogative form of all  verbs in the simple past, always use the auxiliary ‘did’.

Example : Simple past, irregular verbs

to go

(1)   He went to a club last night.

(2)   Did he go to the  cinema last night ?

(3)   He didn’t go to bed early last night.

To give

(1)   We gave her a doll for her birthday.

(2)   They didn’t give John their new passport.

(3)   Did Barry give you my passport ?

to came

(1)   My parents came to visit me last July

(2)   We didn’t come because it was raining.

(3)   Did he come to your party last week ?

3)   Simple Future Tense

a)    Simple future, function.

       This simple future tense is used to refer to actions that will take place after the act of speaking or writing.

Example :

(1)   They will meet us at the newest cafe in the market.

(2)   Will you walk the dog tonight ?

        To express the speaker’s opinions, assumptions  about the future. These may be introducted by verbs such as assume, be afraidi, be I fell sure, belive, daresay, doubt, expect, hope, know suppose, think,wonder or accomponied by adverbs such as perhaps, possibly, probably, surely, but can be used without them.

Example :

(1)   (I’m sure) he we’ll come back.

(2)   (I suppose) they’ll sell the house.

(3)   (perhaps) we’ll find him at the hotel.

(4)   They’ll (probably) wait for us.

       The future simple can be used with or without a time expression. Be going to is sometimes possible here also. But it makes the action appear more probable and (where there is not time expression) more immediate. He’ll build a house merely means “this is my opinion” and gives no idea when the building will start. But he is going to build a house implies that  he has already made this decision and that he willl probably start quite soon.

       The future simple is used similary for future habitual actions which are assume will take place :

Example :

(1)   Spring will come again.

(2)   Birds will build nests.

(3)   People will make plans.

The future simple is used, chiefly in newspapers and in news broadcasts. For formal announcements of future plans and for whether forecasts. In conversation such as statement would normally be expressed by the present continuous

Example :

(1)                                                      Newspapers : The president will open the new heliport                                tomorrow.

                                    The fog will persist in all areas

(2)   But the average reader / listener will say :

The president is going to open / is opening.........

The fog is going to persist / continue........[14]

b)     Simple future, form.

       There are basically two forms of the future tense in English. Both forms are used to express actions or states in the future.

The first form is made up by the verb “to be” plus “going to” plus the verb in base form.

Example :

(1)   I’m going to write a letter for you tomorrow.

(2)   She is going to travel to England next month.

To construct an interrogetive sentence in this tense yopu simply place the verb to be in front of the pronoun. Like this:

Example :

(1)   Are you going to visit your grandmother next summer ?

(2)   Is she going to travel to England next month ?

To form the negative structure of this tense add the word no to the verb to be.

Example :

(1)   I am not going to go to class on Monday.

(2)   She is not going to travel to England next month.

The other tense use to express future in English is formed with the auxiliary “will” followed by a verb in the infinitive form in the main verb. The difference between these two tenses in understood in everyday communication. We used will as the auxiliary for this tenses.

Forms with will.

Statement	{I-You-She-He-It-We-they} will come tomorrow
Negative	{I-You-She-He-It-We-they} will not (won’t) come tomorrow
Questions	Will {I-You-She-He-It-We-They} come tomorrow ?
Answer	Yes {I-You-She-He-It-We-They} will No,  won’t
Constructions:	I’ll, you’ll, she’ll, he’ll, it’ll we’ll, they,ll.	Will is usually contructed with pronouns in both speech and informal writing
	Bob + will = “Bob’ll” The teacher will = ‘the teacher’ll”.	Will is usually contructed with nouns in speech, but usually not in writing.

                        Figure 6 [15]

c)      Uses of be going to, will and shall.

In below are the explaination about the using of the be going to, will and shall. 

(1)   Be going to.

We use going to when we have already decided to do something.

Example :

Later, Helen’s mother speaks to her husband.

Mother : Can you repair Helen’s bycycle. It has a flat tire.

Father  : Yes, I know. She told me.

         I am going to repair it tomorrow.

Helen’s father ghad already decided to repair the bicycle before his wife spoke to him.

We use going to (not will) when there is something in the present situation that shows what will happen in the future (especially the near future). “The speakers feels sure about what will hapen because of the situation now.”[16]

Example :

1.      Look at those black clouds. It’s going to rain. (the clouds are these now)

2.      I feel terrible. I think i’m going to be sick. (I feel terrible now)

(2)   Will and Shall.

“We use will when we decided to do something at the time of speaking. The speaker has not decided before.”[17]

Example :

 Helen’s bicycle has a flat tire. She tells her father.

Helen :  My bycycle has a flat tire.

                                                 Can you repair it for me ?

Father : Ok, but I can’t do it now. I’ll repair it tomorrow.

Before Helen told her father, he did not know about the flat tire.

We often use will in these situations.

Offering to do something

Example :

That bag looks heavy. I’ll help you with it. (not ‘I help’)

Ageering to do somethiong

Example :

A: you know that book I lent you. Can I have it back if you’ve                finished with it ?

B: Of course. I’ll give it to you this afternoon. (not ;I give’)

Promosing to do something.

Example :

(1)   Thanks for lending me the money. I’ll pay back you on Friday. (not ‘I pay’)

(2)   Asking somebody to do something (will you.....?)

Example :

(1)   Will you please be quite ? I am trying to concentrate.

(2)   Will you shut the door, please ? [18]

“The auxiliary shall is used with the subject i or we, informal style, to indicate future time. Notice, however, that in questions the meaning of shall and will  are different.” [19]

Example :

(1)   Will we go to Boston ?

(Simple future time, asking for a prediction)

(2)   Shall we go to Boston ?

(A request for you opinion os advace about giong to boston)

d)     Time expressions of future tense.

There are six time Expressions use in simple future tense :

Tomorrow.

Next.......This weekend

Later       Soon.

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[1] Oxford, Oxford Essential Dictionary, (New York, Oxford Univercity Press,2003.), p. 616

[2] Webster, Pocket Grammar Dictionary, 2005. United State, Trident Press International 2005), p. 98

[3] A S. Hornby, Et.al. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. International New Students Edition: Oxford University Press,1995), p. 1231

[4] A.S Hornby, The Advances Learners Dictionary to Curent English Sixth edition, (Londong: Oxford University perss.2000), p. 1393

[5] Prof G.S., Muhambadithaya, English Grammar and Compotition, (Dublin, Vikas Publishing House PVT. LTD, 2005), p. 70

[6] Allen, Stannard. W, Living English Structure, (London, Longman Group UK Limited 1974) p. 75

[7] Azar, Schramper Betty, Understanding and Using English Grammar, (United State, Printice Hall Regents,1989), p. 6-7

[8] I b i d, p. 11

[9] Thomson A.J. and Martinet, A.V, 1986. Practical English Grammar, London, Oxford University Press 1986), p. 159

[10] Azhar, Basic English Grammar, United State,  Printice Hall Regents, 1996), p. 3

[11]  I b i d, p. 47

[12] Thomson and Martinet, Op. cit, p. 162

[13] Azar, Op. cit, p. 29

[14] Thomson and Martinet, Op. cit, p. 167

[15] Azar, Op. cit, p. 49)

[16] Murphy, Raymond, . English Grammar in Use, (New York, Cambridge University Press, 1985), p. 16.

[17] I b i d, p.  16

[18] Murphy, Op. cit, p. 42

[19] Korhn, Robert, English Sentence Structure, USA, The University of Micghigan, 1986.), p. 110

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